Modern Chinese History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Modern Chinese History - Essay Example According to him, self-strengthening programs that advocated for training led to the introduction of modern schools and arsenal. To achieve National and personal strength, he acknowledged that it does not only arise from the  physical effort  but also the will to acquire and preserve. He argued that a strong leadership and physical prowess merely depend on the will of the individuals to act heroically (Schell 205). These notions intertwined with Confucius teachings help to shape the beliefs and behavior of the nation. Although some individuals despised his concepts and ideas, he demonstrated, taught, and inspired Chinese through his writing through his publications. These writings were effective in cultivating moral standard inspired by truth. This resulted in the eruption of May Fourth Incident in 1919, where individuals demonstrated. A movement by the name May Fourth movement emerged with a collective desire to liberate China and cultivate a new Chinese culture (Schell 207). It targeted to change the political system of the country to make it flexible to accommodate further changes that may occur in the future. Although the movement did not have a clear objective, they opted to attract good governance even though it shall be through violent and harsh manner. The group appreciated the concepts that Mao taught in Chen Duxius, New Youth. According to the movement, direct violent among other political actions are fundamental ingredients for revolutionary action. After working for a longer time in the university library, Mao Zedong returned home in 1920 to form a study group. The group discussed Marxism and socialist  ideologies.Within the group, he emphasized the concept of Marxism especially the historical materialism that described history and dynamics of developing the  history.

The Cultural Relevance of War and Art in Lysistrata Essay Example for Free

The Cultural Relevance of War and Art in Lysistrata Essay War, it seems, is mans chief preoccupation. Throughout history, as one regards how civilizations thrived and crumbled and flourished and collapsed, how cities rose up, fell, cultures subsumed and assimilated in the process, one notices that before language and art, customs and traditions, in man dwelled conflict, combat, and the pervasive propensity for hostility. On this basis, one may argue the consistency of battle in mans nature; the ever-present presence of this desire to dominate and destroy, for one reason or another: an instinct, it seems, stemming from the savage past where survival meant killing or being killed. But the advent of civilization tempered and somewhat refined mans attitude toward war. Though ever-present still, even to this day, as all base instincts are, many responses to warfare have been devised: often, alongside those who preach in favor of battle, the voices of those opposed to slaughter and bloodshed speak too, through various avenues and paths. And throughout history, no mouthpiece has been used more often than art: paintings and plays, poems and sculptures and displays of oratory: all depict what man feels, what he dwells on: that which batters and bombards his mind and soul, driving him to action. And as war remains a constant in life, so remains the presence of war in many works of art. From 431-399 BC in Ancient Greece the Peloponnesian War was fought. The thirty year conflict changed the entire social structure and landscape of Greece, inciting skirmishes and civil wars aplenty, causing much bloodshed and sorrow and suffering. The cessation of this war is the main theme of the ancient Greek comedy Lysistrata. To achieve this end, the playwright, Aristophanes, pits another base instinct against mans propensity for conflict: sexual intercourse. Aristophanes has the namesake of the play, a strong-willed woman, convince all the women of Greece to withhold all sexual favors from their husbands in order to cease the Peloponnesian War. A bloodless battle ensues between the forces of man and woman; in the end, fueled by an urgent desire to copulate, the men of the warring states of Sparta and Athens as well as their allies establish peace; this sets all aright, and celebration follows. In order to probe more deeply into the nature of the play and the concepts found therein, one must investigate the actual war Aristophanes alluded to and used as backdrop for his play, as well as the Mythology and Religion surrounding its conception. Both are integral to understanding and analyzing the social relevance of Lysistrata in the culture that produced it. When evaluated alongside current western religious inclinations and cultural leanings, one can discern the similarities and differences in the perception of war and its presence in art. The Peloponnesian War was a conflict waged between the forces of Athens and Sparta (and the people of the surrounding areas, either allied to one of the two mentioned states) over a period of approximately 30 years. The aftermath of the war completely transformed ancient Greece, restructuring the distribution of power and inflicting untold horrors upon a multitude of people and cities, in the process wreaking havoc and devastation comparable to the atrocities and mass destruction observed in many contemporary accounts of modern warfare. Aristophanes wrote Lysistrata in 411 BC, at the height of the war, which was brought to a close in 399 BC; thus the comedy was in part a piece of wishful thinking, a satirical look at the atrocity-filled events currently occurring at the time. Greek mythology, comprised of a plethora of gods and goddesses, played a large role in ancient Greek life; this is reflected in the play when Lysistrata and the throng of females, in vowing to halt any sexual activities with their husbands, seal their oath by sacrificing wine to the gods, pledging their resolve to follow through on their self-appointed task. This example portrays religion as a component and constituent of culture and history, a cultural artefact contributing to the social make-up of Greek civilization. Thus does the play begin: the women, bolstered and enforced by religion-as-culture, driven to cease a cultural event in this case, war and bloodshed. Thus do we see Aristophanes affixing a cultural context into his play, assimilating the religious and cultural practices of his time into his art, assigning it an integral role as a driving factor in the action of the play. Culture informs all pieces of art. All works can be seen as offshoots of a particular culture at a particular point in time. Lysistrata can be construed as being the product of Aristophanes, himself a product of Athenian culture and religion, compelled to create the work by the cultural events preoccupying his mind at the time, namely the Peloponnesian War. This action a cultural creation (in this case, Aristophanes) creating Art (a cultural artefact) in response to cultural Events such as war mirrors the countless acts of creation found in the myriad number of books and sculptures, plays, films, poems, and pieces of music man has produced in reaction to cultural entities and events. The brutality provoked by war and the ensuing cultural creations were prevalent in much of twentieth century history. Two world wars and countless civil wars and armed conflicts worldwide have instigated the construction of hundreds of Lysistratas, engendered by countless cultures, comprised of and informed by a multitude of sociopolitical, religious, and cultural activities. The many acts of barbarity and bloodshed have as driving forces sociopolitical and cultural Epistemes: take the Communist-driven Spanish Civil War, or the Cold War waged in the latter part of the twentieth century; take the Nazi-Ideology driven battles fought in World War 2, or the armed campaigns resulting in colonization and appropriation of land and resources and people in various parts of the world, as reflected in the subjugation of Greece by Sparta at the end of the Peloponnesian War, replayed time and time again when Western nations colonized much of Asia and Africa in the name of King, God, or Country. Razed lands and lives led many to create works of art immortalizing the history, outcomes, and consequences of the aforementioned events, contributing to the cultural and historical landscape of their own times. These cultural artefacts allow us to examine how cultural events propagate themselves, and perceive the subtle links between past and present culture and history .

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee :: Free Essay Writer

To Kill A Mockingbird First impressions of people are often lasting impressions,especially in the minds of children. Unfortunately, these impressionstend to be negative, thus, discrediting the individual who conveys theimpression and causing the observers to inaccurately assess his truecharacter. Many times these impressions, aided by misunderstanding andprejudgment, cause unjust discrimination against an individual. Tokill a Mockingbird depicts the themes of misunderstanding andprejudice which portray Arthur (Boo) Radley as a villain. Through theprogressive revelation of Radley's character, the children realizethat their negative impressions and fears toward him were unfounded.Through gradual stages of change, Jem's, Scout's, and Dill'simpressions of Radley are dramatically altered, bringing them to therealization that he is not the evil man he was thought to be, butrather a caring individual of distinguished bravery, and truly, thehero of the novel. In the beginning of the novel many falsehoods portray Boo Radleyas a villain . These deluding opinions, very apparent in the adultcommunity, are well illustrated by Miss Stephanie Crawford. She helpsto mislead the children's impressions. Since Atticus, although ofteninterrogated, but not wanting to create a breach of etiquette, refusesto speak about the Radleys. Therefore, Jem receives most of hisinformation from Miss Stephanie Crawford, a neighborhood scold, whoinsists she knows the whole truth about the Radleys. It is fromCrawford that the children learn of Radley's scissor attack on hisfather and other such interesting rumors. Thus, Arthur Radley islabelled as a "hant", a possibly insane and dangerous man, and the"malevolent phantom." The latter, coming from the fact that Radley hadnot been seen for many years, and was believed to be responsible forpetty crimes around the neighbourhood. It is not solely Crawford whodisplays her distaste towards the Radleys, Calpurnia, also sharesthese feelings of hatred. Her dislike of Radley is well described inan offhand remark to the children: "T here goes the meanest man everGod blew breath into." (p.12) The children, aided by neighborhoodlegends, make their own conclusions about Radley. Based on prejudiceand myth, Jem compiles a very detailed description of Radley: Boo was about six-and-a-half feet tall, judging from his tracks; he dined on raw squirrels and any cats he could catch, that's why his hands were bloodstained-if you ate an animal raw, you could never wash the blood off. There was a long jagged scar that ran across his face; what teeth he had were yellow and rotten; his eyes popped, and he drooled most of the time. (p.13) Dill, through his curious and innovative character, also helps toheighten and shed light on the mystery around the Radley house.

Forecasting the Adoption of E-Books Essay

Question 1 The size of the market for e-books in the long-run: 293. 7 million x 46. 7% x 8% = 10. 973 million (Total US population x percentage of US population reading literature x Percentage of traditional paper books purchased online in 2003) It will take 10 years to reach 95% penetration of the potential market. Question 2 I predict that the sale of the e-book when it first became available is 0. 751milion (pm) (Assumption: each innovator buy one book. ) Question 3 The long-run total adoption of e-books would be 10. 973 million. (Total US population x percentage of US population reading literature x Percentage of traditional paper books purchased online in 2003) Question 4 I do expect the market for e-books tend to be guided by imitators rather than innovators. According to the table above, I found that the weighted average for e-book of q (0. 0684) is larger than p (0. 2990). In addition, the word of mouth takes an important role in the adoption of e-books. The information about the e-book from the innovators contribute much to the adoption of e-books since people tend to hesitate to change their old reading habit. Question 5 S(t)=[p+(q/m)N(t-1)][m-N(t-1)] Year 1: [0. 0684+(0. 2990/10. 973) X (0)][10. 973-0] = 0. 751 million Year 2: [0. 0684+(0. 2990/10. 973) X (0. 751)][10. 973-0. 751] = 0. 908 million Year 3: [0. 0684+(0. 2990/10. 973) X (1. 659)][10. 973-1. 659] = 1. 059 million Year 4: [0. 0684+(0. 2990/10. 973) X (2. 717)][10. 973-2. 717] = 1. 176 million Year 5: [0. 0684+(0. 2990/10. 973) X (3. 893)][10. 973-3. 893] = 1. 235 million Question 6 The adoption of e-book will be very different from digital music obtained online. The adoption of e-books face more challenges when comparing to the adoption of digital music. To most of the listeners, there is not much difference in experience between listening to a song from an iPod and a CD player. Therefore, they have a relatively low switching cost and more willing to change their habits. On the contrary, to most of the readers, it is definitely very different from reading an e-book to reading a printed book. The feelings of holding a printed book and flipping over a physical book are irreplaceable. So readers are loyal to printed book and hesitate to switch from traditional books to e-books. Hence, it is reasonable to predict that the pace of adopting digital music is faster than the pace of adopting e-books. Question 7 I think both of the attitudes about reading and purchasing e-content have changed a lot in recent years. In the old time, people could read e-content via PC only. Nowadays, people are able to read e-content through various mobile devices. Therefore, they spend more time on reading e-content especially during leisure time and even commuting time. However, the quality of the reading effort is diminishing as the overload of e-content available on Internet. In addition, people tend to rely more on the e-content since it is very convenient, environmentally friendly, high mobility and high accessibility. For the attitude about purchasing e-content, more people are willing to pay for the e-content in recent years. The advanced online payment system plays an important role. People feel more secure and also convenient when dealing online ever than before. Moreover, more well-known and large-scale publishers offer more choices of e-content for readers. Besides, in the light of the prevalent of mobile device, people have more time and chances to read the e-content regardless of the time and places. Thus, people are more willing to spend on e-content than before. Question 8 The hardware plays a paramount important role in the adoption of e-books. No matter how amazing the e-content is, the e-books would not be popularized if the hardware were not user-friendly. However, a good hardware is very likely to boost sales of the e-books. It is because the hardware is a fixed cost while the e-books are the variable cost to the readers. A portable hardware with proper size of monitor and high capacity is very attractive to the readers. They no longer need to neither carry the bulky printed books nor spare some places for storage. Moreover, the hardware enables readers to read comfortably when comparing to read via PC or smart phone. It is good for the readers’ eyes. Last but not least, the hardware contributed to protecting the environment as it saves much paper. Only when the hardware preforms better than the tradition printed books, the adoption of e-books will be success. Question 9 I do expect the size and also the pattern of diffusion are quite different globally as compared to the United States. The size and the pattern of diffusion depend on many factors. Population, culture, attitude to new products, technology and even literacy could be one of the variables of the size and pattern of diffusion. Take Africa as an example; though the population size of Africa is much larger than The United States, the potential size of the market for e-books must be obviously different from the United States. So it is not difficult to understand that the size and pattern of diffusion of various places will not be similar to the United States.

The looks and trends of the 70’s and the 90’s Venice Beach 1970’s

If the 1960’s popularized the vintage look, characterized by heavy makeup, the onset of the 1970’s brought with it a penchant for a more natural look. Unlike the heavily made-up look that was very typical of the previous decades, the emphasis on one particular part of the face such as the eyes or the lips was replaced by trying to achieve a more natural look.   (freebeautytips) Very minimal eye makeup replaced thick eye makeup and heavily-lined eyes. Black kohl-lined eyes soon became dated. Eye shadow shades were worn much lighter to achieve a more natural effect. There was very little to no usage of mascara. Eyeliner and mascara were used not to achieve a certain look but just to lengthen lashes and open up the eyes a bit.   Blue eye makeup became so last season. These tools were used to enhance the features and no longer layered to pull off a certain type of appearance.   Natural looking lips replaced the pale, nude and bright lipstick colors of the past.   Cheeks heavily tinted with blush became a thing of the past, with most of the women, and even men, opting for a more natural, tanned look. The blush of this decade was more of a golden all over glow.   (freebeautytips) During the 1970’s, the â€Å"surfer† look became popular. The beach culture became very predominant. The perfect tan became the most sought-after fashion accessory. The baked look was achieved either by spending hours in the sun to get bronzed or by faking it using tanning beds. It was also during this period skin bronzers became popular. Tanning lotions flew off the shelves. The vibe of this decade was more of a natural, â€Å"fresh off the beach† appearance, although a lot would look a bit â€Å"orange† from the improper application of tanning lotions.   The people of this decade wanted to give the impression that they baked under the sun for hours to get the glow they exuded.   (freebeautytips) Women wore less foundation. Those who did use foundation did not follow it up with powder like they did during the past. To dust loose powder after using foundation would lend a more matte texture. Not dusting the face after applying foundation would result in a shinier face, which was more natural looking. The face of this decade was that of a dewy, more natural look.   (freebeautytips) Individualistic, polished, sophisticated 1990’s The decades that came before the 1990s had people very conscious about fashion. During the 1990’s it seemed that people we’re to â€Å"tired† to pay too much attention to trends as they did in the recent years.   (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) The 1980’s was about exaggerated glamour.   The 1990’s was very casual and laid-back. Emphasis was on comfort, simplicity and less on flamboyance. People wore more jeans and everyone favored easy to manage, wash-and-wear hair.   There is a bit of parallelism between the makeup trends of the 1970’s and 1990’s because both decades were reminiscent of the no-natural looking no-makeup look. The prevailing look was always paired with matte makeup. The foundation was matte and matched the skin tone. As opposed to the soft dewy look of the 1970’s, 1990’s makeup was strong, clean and polished. Strong, earthy lip colors reminiscent of grunge to gothic were the more favored shades for lipstick. During the 90’s the grunge was popular. Matte makeup was back, strong, rich earth tones were in vogue as far as makeup was concerned. There was very minimal to no eye makeup. Colors for eye makeup were neutral and usually coordinated with the lip color. Popular lip colors included strong earthy reds that were more towards the browns. Unlike the previous decades where there was a distinct style where hair and makeup are concerned, the 90’s look was simple, manageable, and polished. The look was designed for the career woman who had to look good and was always on the go.   With more women who chose to pursue their careers, the world of fashion and beauty followed to suit the needs of the modern, empowered women.   Women learned how to quickly apply makeup in a few minutes. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) The preceding years or decades saw women of all ages pile on makeup and beauty products. The women of the 1990’s were more concerned about real beauty and not fashion. The women of the past decades would layer on the makeup, go about their daily business in heavy makeup. This was a far cry in the 1990s. Consumers of this era would opt for enhancing their natural appearance through the use of products that were much lighter and kinder to the skin. This era gave the rise to makeup formulas that promised to cover imperfections without having to use too much products. Cosmetic formulas not only gave the desired coverage but also guaranteed to make one’s skin look more radiant and lighter. Some brands would even claim to diminish the appearance of wrinkles and other flaws. Most of the makeup lines that were created by the top makeup artists and beauty icons of that time and are still very big in the present were launched during this period. Fashion and beauty experts would remember Bobbi Brown and Iman among the names that became big hits during the 90’s fashion era. (Channel 4) Women also paid more attention to the looks of celebrities and would often request hair stylists and makeup artists cut their hair and to make them look like the stars that they admire. The 1990’s was the time when the television comedy sitcom â€Å"Friends† became a hit. The more popular looks during this time included those of Jennifer Aniston and her co-stars Courtney Cox and Lisa Kudrow. During that time, Aniston sported the now famous â€Å"Rachel† cut. Hair was either worn straight with some bangs or cut with layers. The 90’s wouldn’t be the 90’s without the Spice Girls. With the all-female English pop group entering the entertainment scene in the mid 90’s, the looks of each of the girls in the group became popular. Women would want to look sweetly sexy like Emma Bunton as â€Å"Baby Spice†, polished and sophisticated like Victoria Beckham or â€Å"Posh Spice†, sporty and fresh like Melanie Chisholm or â€Å"Sporty Spice† , and dark and exotic like Melanie Brown, also known as â€Å"Scary Spice†   (Wikipedia) The different looks that each of the Spice Girls made popular also gave rise to individualism or developing own’s one style when it comes to fashion and makeup.   (Wikipedia) More than being stars in the big and small screen, actors and actresses increasingly became the more popular and more watched fashion icons. Whatever they wore and however they looked became the prevalent trend of the era. Hollywood actors and actresses became fashion and beauty icons alongside the supermodels of the runway. Actresses started to grace the covers of fashion magazines more during the 1990s. This observable fact still continues until the present time (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) Works Cited Channel 4. 1990s. 2007. 18 June 2007 freebeautytips. 1970s Style Disco Makeup and Era Fashions that have a Vintage Flair. 2007. 17 June 2007 . Wikipedia. Spice Girls . 2007. 18 June 2007 . Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 1990s in fashion. 2007. 17 June 2007 .      

A History of the Internet essays

A History of the Internet essays The technology revolution is upon us. In the past, there have been many triumphs in the world of technology. To this date, people are able to communicate over thousands of miles with the greatest of ease. The Internet connects nearly 400 million users worldwide and is an essential part of how we work, play, communicate, and conduct commerce. We use the Internet in ways that seemed unimaginable The term "Internet" refers to the global information system that: (i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons. (ii) is able to support communications using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or other IP-compatible protocols; and (iii) provides, uses or makes accessible layered on the communications and related infrastructure described herein.", either publicly or privately, high level services. Computers speak to one another and send information back and forth, which is accomplished, by sending and receiving electronic impulses and decoding them into messages. In order to communicate with one another the computers are linked up in a network. They are then able to access information from thousands of other computers. The network acts like one large computer storing information in various places, rather than one physical place. Users of the Internet access this big network to get information or provide information. Internet technology allows users to surf the World Wide Web or send e-mail (Comer 5). The history of the Internet began with the United States government. The original use of the Internet was to maintain communication during the cold war, with the Soviet Union in 1969, by the Department of Defense, in the case of a nuclear attack or a major catastrophe. The vision of the Internet that would revolutionize the computer and communications belonged to...

Cell Culture Technique

Cell Culture Technique Biological advancements have contributed to the improvement of society in various forms. Biomedical research which forms the foundation for spectrum of inventions/discoveries, has its origin in techniques like cell culture.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cell Culture Technique specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Cell culture involves creating an artificial environment of growing that mimics the natural one in all the characteristical features in a laboratory. So, growing the cells of animals, plants or human beings, yeast and bacteria in a lab setting, constitutes the cell culture. It is mainly employed to examine new drugs and detect infectious agents (Dictionary of Cancer Terms n.d.). The methodology of cell culture is a bit complicated. In order to achieve the robust growth of cells, specific conditions need to be maintained. The key process involved in handling living eukaryotic cells initially is mandatory awarene ss of materials and methods. It involves the use of 370 CO2 incubator, phosphate buffer saline, plastic ware, glass ware, petri dishes, trypsin/EDTA, vialsfor cryopreservation media like DMEM, Hemocytometer is provided with cover slip, DMSO and FBS for cell freezing etc(Protocol: Cell Culture 2012). Initially, cell culture begins with primary culture. It constitutes a stage where cells are picked from tissue and multiplied in the presence of suitable atmosphere till they become full grown on the platform known as substrate, resulting in confluence (Introduction to Cell Culture 2012) Here, cells need re-culture known as passaging or subculture achieved by the transporting them to a novel vessel with medium of growth which is fresh to enable more space for the prolonged growth. Primary culture is the important step and prerequisite for any kind of cell culture technique. A failure in proper maintenance of Primary culture could lead to total failure in the overall culture process (Intr oduction to Cell Culture 2012). Maintenance of cell culture is firmly linked with safety interlinked with cross contamination issues. This is because, cell culture unit contains many particular dangerous agents linked with hand contact and modifying chemicals, solutions of corrosive nature, tissues and cells of plant, animal or human. The potential dangers are punctures occurring accidentally with needles, spills on the skin, mouth contact through pipetting or ingestion and inhaling infectious agents like sprays, exposures etc.Advertising Looking for essay on biology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To overcome these problems, agencies like National Institute of Health (NIH) and Centers for Disease Control (CDC) have provided biosafety recommendations United States. It is mainly focused on four types of biosafety levels (BSL). BSL-1 is the primary option of protection to many laboratories involved in basic and clinic al research. BSL-2 is suitable for medium risk contributors that lead to severe disease in human, that vary deepening on complexity, by contact with percutaneous membranes. BSL-3 is suitable for agents of indigenous nature which have a capacity for transmission like aerosols and that lead to detrimental infections. BSL-4 is suitable for indigenous agents that carry a high risk or fatal by aerosols of infectious nature and no therapy exists (Introduction to Cell Culture 2012). But laboratories of only high containment possess these agents. Hence, there are specific guidelines that not only ensure safety but also may be helpful to avoid all possible chances of contamination from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic sources. These are wearing equipment of specific personnel type and replacing contaminated gloves with new ones, disposal of all wastes suspected of contamination, washing hands after contact with dangerous materials prior to the laboratory closing hours, avoiding smoking, drink ing, food consumption and storage in the lab, close adherence to the institutional rules and regulations with regard to handling glassware, pipettes, scalpels and needles, lessening the development of aerosols and leakages, removing surface contamination with suitable disinfectant near the work place before and after the experiments, infectious material spills, regular cleaning of laboratory devices as well as instant reporting of the laboratory incidents that occur due to contact with infectious agents to a laboratory authority (Introduction to Cell Culture 2012). Next, for preventing contamination from sources like sneezing, skin shedding, and spores, dust which serves as the vial constituents of aerosols and airborne particles, employing a hood of cell culture, is essential. Setting up cell culture hood relies on the location where there are a restricted outlets like windows, doors and no personnel movements. The work place must have only necessary reagents, lab ware and protocol s. One must disinfect work place, clean instrument regularly before and after use with 70% ethanol, use ultraviolet light for air and surface sterilization of hood, while using at frequent intervals, as well as maintain the hood in running conditions through the available time and switching it off when there is no work. In the cell culture, the cell lines are the most important ones to consider (Introduction to Cell Culture 2012).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cell Culture Technique specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The cell lines are defined as the products of primary culture obtained by subculture. Primary culture of the given cell lines possesses a short duration of life known as finite cell lines. When these cell lines are subjected to passaging, the resultant cells obtain a robust phenotypic and genotypic stability marked with lustrous growth potential. As such, cell line growth is achieved in two ways. One is monolayer or adherent culture which is achieved on substrates of artificial nature and another one is suspension culture, achieved through medium of free floating nature (Introduction to Cell Culture 2012) Cell line contamination needs to be understood from the point of view of biological contamination in general. These may be grouped under Bacterial, Mold Virus, Mycoplasma and yeast types of contamination. Bacterial contamination is recognized by visual observation of culture during the very initial days of infection. The cultures appear turbid with low pH of the medium and tiny appearance of bacteria. Molds are a special category of eukaryotic microorganisms and infection; in the early stages they contribute to turbidity with visual appearance of spore clumps and thread like thin filaments under microscope. Viruses are microscopic organisms with high multiplication potential. Infected cell lines can be identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunoassays, immunostaining a nd electron microscopy (Introduction to Cell Culture 2012). Mycoplasma are bacteria without cell wall. Their infection of cell lines contribute to altered metabolism of cells, low multiplication potential, suspension culture agglutination, etc.Advertising Looking for essay on biology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Detection is possible though PCR, immunassays, and the most important, Hoechst 33258 – fluorescent staining. Yeasts are microorganisms of eukaryotic type and their infection contributes to turbidity, pH variation, with rounded appearance in the culture which can be microscopically observed (Introduction to Cell Culture 2012). Very often in the cell culture unrelated cell growth could lead to contamination and cell line growth more than the expected limit. This is nothing but cross-contamination which may appear as of interspecies and intraspecies among human cell lines. Possible detection strategies may include cytogenetic analysis and DNA fingerprinting. Earlier, by employing this approach, the investigators were able to detect nearly cross contaminated cell lines brought from hematopoietic cell lines of different source and those belonging to the original researcher. This situation of cell line cross contamination could be attributed to constant necessity in the protocol fo r cell culture viability and identification. Maintenance of multiple cell lines is the contributing factor sometimes and it can be avoided by regular monitoring for specificity and identity, markers, karyotyping and immunoprofile (Drexler, Dirks, MacLeod 1999). To better overcome the problem of contamination, U.S. National Institutes of Health has commissioned the utility of authentication of cell line investigations. Here, a private firm Promega has come forward with PCR system in a multiplex format known as StemEliteâ„ ¢ ID System (Oostdikv et al. 2009). This approach better recognizes the contamination in variety of cells like those of mouse and human by making comparison between a standard genotype and genotype developed by StemEliteâ„ ¢ ID System (Oostdikv et al. 2009). Even for the plant cell culture contamination detection, the strategy recommended was maintenance of cultures aseptically with regard to Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) by meristem explants and good laboratory practice (GLP) guidelines (Cassells Prestwich 2009). Pure cell lines are important for a variety of applications like Blood Factor VIII, Erythropoietin (EPO), hybridoma technology to produce monoclonal antibodies (Applications of Animal cell culture 2009). Large scale culture of cells is done in industries in order to scale up for the development of cell bank systems. For this purpose, huge bioreactors like compact-loop bioreactor will be used that optimizes the cells in the medium by providing biological, physical and chemical factors. For cultures operated in batches, spinner flasks and Micro Carrier Beads are used for scale up (Applications of Animal cell culture 2009). This indicates that pure cell lines are very important for scale up processes in industries. It is reasonable to mention that very often impure cell line growth may contribute to adverse reactions in the bioreactors. The impure cell lines may release unnecessary bye products that may become t oxic and affect the down stream process. More probably, it may interfere with the routine biological and chemical properties offered by a bioreactor, as mentioned earlier. This may not only alter the yield of the culture but also affect the equipment with great chances of interproduct contamination. Thus cell culture appears a vital research strategy for a variety of biomedical applications. References Applications of Animal cell culture 2009, http://biotechnology4u.com/animal_biotechnology_applications_animal_cell_culture.html Cassells Alan C Prestwich Barbara Doyle 2009,Contamination Detection and Elimination in Plant Cell Culture, viewed on http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470054581.eib241/abstract Dictionary of Cancer Terms: Cell culture n.d.. cancer.gov/dictionary?cdrid=556412. Drexler, HG, Dirks, WG, MacLeod,RA 1999, ‘False human hematopoietic cell lines: cross-contaminations and misinterpretations’, Leukemia, vol. 13 no.10, pp.1601-7. Introduction to Cell Culture 2012, invitrogen.com/site/us/en/home/References/gibco-cell-culture-basics/introduction-to-cell-culture.html Oostdikv Katie, Petterson Adam, Schagat Trista Storts Doug 2009,  Stem Cell Line Authentication and Contamination Detection, promega.com/resources/articles/pubhub/enotes/stem-cell-line-authentication-and-contamination-detection/